Ethical Challenges and Considerations in Agricultural Development and Land Reform Projects in Iran (with Emphasis on the Tooba plan)

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 PhD student in Islamic Ethics Education (Bachelor of Agricultural Engineering), Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.

2 Department of Islamic teachings, Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran (Corresponding Author).

Abstract

Introduction:Agriculture is one of the pillars of food security, economic development,
and environmental sustainability. The Tooba Plan, launched in the early 2000s, was implemented to strengthen this sector. Although the plan has achieved certain successes in economic dimensions, it has also faced serious challenges such as land-use change, land grabbing, and unsustainable exploitation of resources. These problems, to some extent, can be attributed to neglect of ethical considerations. Accordingly, this study examines the Tooba Plan from the perspective of Islamic ethical values and principles, seeking to answer four key questions: According to Islamic teachings, what are the fundamental values regarding how humans should utilize the environment? How have these fundamental values been reflected, and under what ethical principles, in agricultural policy documents? To what extent have the identified values and ethical principles been incorporated into the executive bylaw of the Tooba Plan? Based on the identified values and ethical principles, and in reference to available field studies, what ethical considerations emerge in the implementation of the Tooba Plan?
Method: The ethical–environmental thought of Ayatollah Javadi Amoli was first selected as the foundation for identifying fundamental values. Subsequently, fourteen upstream policy documents related to agriculture and natural resources were analyzed in terms of ethical principles. Following this, the executive bylaw of the Tooba Plan was evaluated, and finally, field studies on the implementation and consequences of the plan were reviewed in order to provide a comprehensive picture of its ethical strengths and weaknesses.
Findings: Based on the views of Ayatollah Javadi Amoli, four fundamental values were identified: preservation of environmental health and balance, justice in the utilization of natural resources, intergenerational justice and rights, and respect for non-human life. Corresponding ethical principles derived from these values were then traced in upstream agricultural policy documents. The findings revealed that upstream documents in the
field of natural resources primarily emphasized avoiding unsustainable exploitation
and maintaining ecological balance, and to some extent addressed the rights of future generations. However, intrinsic rights of living beings, wildlife and natural habitats, equitable access for social groups, and active participation of local communities were largely overlooked. At the implementation level, although the Tooba Plan has in some regions contributed to increased employment, household income, and land value, it has also generated adverse consequences such as rangeland degradation, loss of native species, land-use conversion for villas and land grabbing, decline of traditional livelihoods, and inequities in the land allocation process.
Discussion: The weakness in ethical considerations within the Tooba Plan has led to
its implementation being pursued primarily within the framework of economic interests.
The roots of these challenges can be traced back to the insufficient attention to ethical dimensions in upstream agricultural policy documents. Employing the framework of Islamic ethics can contribute to addressing these shortcomings and guiding future reforms.

Keywords

References

The Holy Qur’an.
Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (1979). Article 45, revised in 1989. Tehran: Islamic Consultative Assembly. [in Persian]
Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (with 1989 amendments). Tehran: Islamic Consultative Assembly. [in Persian]
Environmental Protection and Improvement Act (1974/06/18), Consisting of 21 Articles and 8 Notes. Tehran: Islamic Consultative Assembly. [in Persian]
Executive Bylaw of Clause (a), Note (20) in the 1381 (2002-03) National Budget Law of the Whole Country, Related to the Tooba Plan. [in Persian] https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/121889
Executive Bylaw of the Law on Hunting and Fishing (1967), Approved by the Council of Ministers, Including 36 Articles. [in Persian]
Executive Bylaw on the Bed and Boundaries of Rivers and Streams (2000), Approved by the Council of Ministers Pursuant to Article 51 of the Fair Water Distribution Act (1982), with the Amendment of Clause (kh), Article 1 in 2003. [in Persian]
Executive Bylaw on the Prevention of Water Pollution (1994/05/08), Approved by the Council of Ministers, Pursuant to Article 46 of the Fair Water Distribution Act, Consisting of 22 Articles and 7 Notes.
[in Persian]
Fair Water Distribution Act (1983/03/07), Approved by the Islamic Consultative Assembly, Consisting of 52 Articles, 29 Notes, and One Executive Bylaw. Tehran: Islamic Consultative Assembly. [in Persian]
General Policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran regarding Natural Resources (1999/01/13). Supreme Leader’s Decree, No. 1/76230 dated 2001/02/22. [in Persian]
General Policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran regarding Water Resources (1999/01/13). Supreme Leader’s Decree, No. 1/76230 dated 2001/02/22. [in Persian]
Ghasemi, M.; Gholizadeh, H.; Badsar, M. (2016). Assessment of the Economic, Social, and Environmental Impacts of the Tooba Plan in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province. Forest Resources Planning, 1(2), 11–20. [in Persian] https://www.magiran.com/p1692596
Islamic Penal Code (1996). With Amendments Approved in 1997. Tehran: Islamic Consultative Assembly. [in Persian]
Javadi Amoli, A. (2007). Sarcheshmeh-ye Andisheh (The Source of Thought). Vol. 3. Qom: Esra. [in Persian]
Javadi Amoli, A. (2009). Islam and the Environment. 6th Edition. Tehran: Esra. [in Persian]
Javadi Amoli, A. (2010). Thematic Interpretation of the Holy Qur’an. Vol. 17. Qom: Esra. [in Persian]
Javadi Amoli, A. (2011 AH). Tasnim: Interpretation of the Holy Qur’an. Vol. 10. Qom: Esra. [in Persian]
Javadi Amoli, A. (2017). Archive of Advanced Qur’anic Interpretation Lessons 91–92. Isfahan: Qaemiyah Center for Computer Research. [in Persian]
Javadi Amoli, A. (2017). Mafatih al-Hayah. Qom: Esra. [in Persian]
Karami, H.; Efati, M. (2013). Socio-Economic Evaluation of Tooba Project in Lorestan Province. Village and Development, 16(2), 111–132. [in Persian] http://doi:10.30490/rvt.2018.59285
Lotfi, B. (2020). Assessment of the Economic Efficiency of the Tooba Plan. Master’s thesis, University of Kurdistan. [in Persian]
Mahdavi, D.; Fattahi, K. (2013). Analysis and Evaluation of Orchard Development Plans (Tooba Plan) in the Economic Development of Rural Areas: A Case Study of Villages in Saman Rural District. Second International Conference on Management, Entrepreneurship, and Economic Development. [in Persian]
Mahdavi Motlagh, Sh. (2022). Implementation of Tooba and Greenhouse Plans Has Become an Excuse for Land Grabbing (23/08/2022). Mehr News Agency. News code: 5563120. [in Persian]
https://www.mehrnews.com/news/5563120
Masoudinia, M. (2018). Analysis of National Land Ownership Role in the Development Process, with Emphasis on the Impact of Tuba Gardens Project Implementation on the Surrounding Area (case study: Basmenj City). Environmental Law, 2(4), 82–95. [in Persian]
https://enlaw.journals.pnu.ac.ir/article_5100.html?lang=en
Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Ibrahim Ahsa’i (Ibn Abi Jumhur) (1985 AH). Awali al-La’ali al-‘Aziziya fi
al-Ahadith al-Diniyah. Edited by Aghaj Mostafa Mohammadi Araqi. Qom: Sayyid al-Shuhada.
[in Persian]
Resolutions of the Meeting on Drinking Water Pollution in Tehran (1997/02/16). High Council for Environmental Protection of the Islamic Republic of Iran. [in Persian]
Resolutions on the Prevention of Drinking Water Pollution in Tehran within the Karaj, Latian, and Lar Watersheds (1999/09/07 and 2002/05/25). Supreme National Security Council of the Islamic Republic of Iran. [in Persian]
Rostami, K. (2018). Evaluation of the Tooba Plan in Kamyaran (Javroud Rural District). Master’s thesis. University of Kurdistan. [in Persian]
Scott, D. N. (2014). What is Environmental Justice? Osgoode Legal Studies Research Paper Series, 4. https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/olsrps/4
United Nations Global Compact (2024). Ten Principles of the UN Global Compact.              
https://www.unglobalcompact.org/what-is-gc/mission/principles
Verma, A. K. (2018). Ecological Balance: An Indispensable Need for Human Survival. Journal of Experimental Zoology, India, 21(1), 40.                
https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/20183127254

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 11 August 2025
  • Revise Date: 20 September 2025
  • Accept Date: 27 September 2025
  • First Publish Date: 20 October 2025
  • Publish Date: 22 November 2025

Share

How to cite

Statistics