https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/ Interdisciplinary Studies in Ethics en daily 1 Tue, 23 Sep 2025 00:00:00 +0330 Tue, 23 Sep 2025 00:00:00 +0330 https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106670.html Introduction: This paper examines two contrasting ethical approaches to the development of artificial intelligence (AI): the optimistic and the pessimistic. Both approaches aim to analyze the ethical and human-centered dimensions of AI, yet they differ fundamentally in their assumptions and conclusions. The optimistic approach emphasizes AI’s potential to enhance human life and argues that ethical concerns are often based on speculative or non-specialist assumptions. In contrast, the pessimistic approach deems unrestricted AI development ethically unjustifiable due to unpredictable consequences, algorithmic bias, and the erosion of human decision-making capacity. The focal point of this paper is the “responsibility gap”—a dilemma that complicates the attribution of negative outcomes of AI systems to any specific individual or institution, raising profound questions about moral and legal accountability. The central question addressed is: which of the two approaches offers a more reasonable response to the responsibility gap?Findings: The optimistic approach is grounded in three core arguments:l The benefits of AI development outweigh its harms, and depriving societies of these benefits is ethically unjustifiable.l Pessimistic concerns often stem from non-expert perceptions, whereas specialists tend to offer more balanced and optimistic assessments.l Philosophical assumptions underlying pessimistic views—such as the claim that robots lack human-like qualities—remain unresolved and cannot serve as a decisive basis for restricting AI development.Conversely, the pessimistic approach draws on empirical evidence of AI’s problematic effects:l AI systems may possess unethical tendencies such as deception and malicious intent.l AI development leads to undesirable consequences like institutionalized inequality and diminished human autonomy, which cannot be ethically offset by potential benefits.l Ethical considerations should extend beyond normative human life to include potential harm to nature and ecosystems, threatening the very foundation of human existence.Regarding the responsibility gap, pessimistic thinkers such as Matthias and Sparrow argue that autonomous systems make it impossible to assign moral responsibility, especially in sensitive domains like warfare. Optimists like Danaher, however, view the gap as an opportunity to reduce the psychological burden of tragic human decisions, presenting it as a potential ethical advantage.Discussion: The paper offers an independent analysis that distinguishes moral accountability from moral worth, arguing that the responsibility gap in AI is no more complex than that found among humans. Epistemic uncertainty and lack of full control are inherent to all moral agents, and the emergence of intelligent entities is not fundamentally different from the birth of new human beings.Thus, ethical pessimism that rejects AI development due to the responsibility gap suffers from internal contradiction—if blameworthiness is a condition for moral legitimacy, then human reproduction itself would be ethically suspect. Accordingly, a combined neutral-optimistic approach to the responsibility gap is logically superior to absolute pessimism. This conclusion demonstrates the overall implausibility of the pessimistic approach and supports the preference for optimistic and neutral perspectives. https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106660.html Introduction: Evidence-based policymaking (EBPM) has become a widely embraced approach across fields such as medicine, education, and public policy. This trend responds to past policy failures where decisions were often grounded in weak or irrelevant considerations. Despite the centrality of evidence, some argue that ethics, i.e., ethical evidence (most broadly construed), is irrelevant to EBPM.Findings: Arguments for “ethics-free” policymaking are motivated by concerns about relevance, objectivity, consensus, complexity, effectiveness, and analytical clarity. These arguments are too dismissive of ethical considerations in the sphere of evidence-based policymaking. However, there are also less pessimistic arguments that do not take ethics seriously in the domain of policymaking, i.e., the effectiveness argument and the separation argument.None of the above arguments works. For example, although considering ethics makes things complicated, it would be a mistake to ignore real complexities. Similarly, although effectiveness in some ways is beyond the reach of ethics, it matters that the goals aimed at are properly picked.Discussion: Even if policy exclusively relies on relevant evidence, it retains an intrinsic normative dimension. Emphasizing evidence is itself a normative claim: policymakers ought to base decisions on relevant facts rather than personal preference. The idea of being sensitive to reasons in forming beliefs is not a trivial matter. Furthermore, ethical considerations also guide how evidence is obtained and used. For instance, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are ethically sensitive forms of evidence-gathering. RCTs are valuable since we cannot directly run some experiments due to ethical limits on research.Relevantly, there are epistemic and justice considerations about the sources we seek to gather evidence. Policies promoting diversity or inclusion rely on ethical reasoning to justify which perspectives are included in evidence collection (Fricker, 2007). Finally, engaging with evidence often raises normative questions, such as handling expert disagreement, conflicting societal beliefs, or biases revealed by “noise” studies (Kahneman et al., 2022; Eslami, 2023). Thus, normative considerations are unavoidable, underpinning both the selection and interpretation of evidence.Furthermore, on another level, ethical considerations in EBPM are diverse. For example, policymaking must identify what is important and why. This includes, for example, questions about human well-being, non-human life, and environmental sustainability (Broome, 2010; Heathwood, 2021; Nussbaum, 2000). Similarly, policy possibly should account for collective values, such as equality, justice, and fairness (e.g., Parfit, 1997).In sum, insisting on eliminating ethics from evidence-based policymaking without further good arguments would count as the opposite of the very idea of evidence-based policymaking. https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106394.html Introduction: In Usul (principles of jurisprudence), rational and textual discussions are organized to resolve jurisprudential and religious issues. However, its impact extends beyond Fiqh (jurisprudence) and can play a role in moral epistemology. Extending the principle of Qubḥ-e 'Uqāb Bilā Bayān (the ugliness of punishment without clarification) to resolve issues in moral epistemology means it has the following applications as a Justified Practical Knowledge:l In confronting moral doubts;l As a source against moral epistemic skepticism;l Resolving issues of applying moral knowledge to concrete subjects.Findings:1) The Nature of the Rule of Qubḥ-e 'Uqāb Bilā BayānThe rational principle, Qubḥ-e 'Uqāb Bilā Bayān, states that punishing or blaming a person for performing or omitting an act, without a valid religious clarification (Shar’ī) or a sound rational argument (Dalīl 'Aqlī) for the obligation, is ugly (qubīh). Therefore, if an agent doubts the ruling of a religious act and has not received any valid clarification, reason deems the principle of Barā’ah (innocence/exemption) to prevail, and the obligation is negated.2) The Rule of Qubḥ-e 'Uqāb Bilā Bayān and Moral Epistemic SkepticismMoral epistemic skepticism asserts that access to certain moral truths is impossible. However, the rule of Qubḥ-e 'Uqāb Bilā Bayān acts as a form of Justified Practical Knowledge, rescuing the skeptical agent from inability.3) The Rule of Qubḥ-e 'Uqāb Bilā Bayān: The Basis of Moral Exemption in Moral DoubtMoral doubt occurs when an individual knows general moral principles but is ambiguous about a specific action. In such situations, the rule of Qubḥ-e 'Uqāb Bilā Bayān provides the rational basis for moral exemption (Barā’ah); meaning, after review and finding no valid clarification regarding the badness of an act, reason rules that the agent is exempt from moral blame and responsibility. The principle of moral exemption has two consequences:l A) Necessity of Non-Blame by the Observer (External Judge):l B) Moral Responsibility Following Moral Exemption:4) The Rule of Qubḥ-e 'Uqāb Bilā Bayān and the Challenge of Applying Moral Knowledge to SubjectsThe error of applying moral knowledge (Tajarrī Akhlāqī or moral transgression/ presumption) occurs when an individual intends to violate a moral law (e.g., lying), but their action, in reality, conforms to the actual moral ruling (they tell the truth). Based on the rule of Qubḥ-e 'Uqāb Bilā Bayān: Since the agent in this state lacks valid clarification regarding the wrongness of their current act (because their knowledge was erroneous), reason rules for their moral exemption. Therefore, moral transgression resulting from a misapplication error entails no moral blame or responsibility (neither based on intention nor result), because accountability without clear clarification is ugly.Discussion: By utilizing discussions from Usul studies, one can achieve a deeper understanding of the role of “Clarification” (Bayān) and the level of moral awareness in the possibility of acting upon the contents of moral propositions. From this perspective, the rule of Qubḥ-e 'Uqāb Bilā Bayān is not merely an Usūlī rule confined to Fiqh, but rather an epistemological foundation for moral judgment in cases of doubt. This rule, as a rational criterion, enables decision-making regarding behaviors or attitudes whose moral wrongness or badness lacks clear clarification. Hence, it can be considered a basis for moral exemption and the organization of moral epistemology in doubtful situations. https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106719.html Introduction: Epidemic diseases have always been one of the greatest challenges for human societies, testing not only physical health but also social and ethical cohesion. Confronting these crises requires an ethical framework that can balance the preservation of individual lives with social responsibilities. This research aims to explain and present practical ethical principles for dealing with infectious diseases, based on Islamic ethical criteria and sources. Using a descriptive-analytical method and drawing from library resources, this paper endeavors to examine the virtue-based, teleological, and deontological dimensions of this confrontation, providing an operational framework for ethical policymaking during crises.Method: This research is descriptive-analytical and employs a library-based approach. Necessary data were gathered through the study and collection of credible jurisprudential, ethical, and social sources related to the principles of human interaction during crises and illness. The extracted principles were then compared and analyzed against the foundations of Islamic ethics. The main focus is on extracting practical ethical guidelines for daily social interactions during disease outbreaks.Findings: The conducted investigations led to the extraction of seven fundamental principles of practical social ethics in responding to epidemics. These principles are:The Principle of Rights-Based Approach (Rights of the Patient and Society): Emphasizing respect for the fundamental rights of individuals, including the right to health and the right to necessary care, without discrimination. This principle is rooted in Islamic teachings regarding human dignity and the obligation to respect the rights of believers and even non-believers.The Principle of Companionship and Empathy: The necessity of establishing emotional connection and providing psychological support to patients and families affected by the disease, as a human and religious duty. Islam emphasizes the importance of affection and mercy among believers, and this principle gains even greater significance during crises.The Principle of Mutual Recommendation (Enjoining Truth): The social responsibility of individuals to convey accurate and timely health information and refrain from spreading harmful rumors. The verse, “And advise each other to truth, and advise each other to patience” (Surah Al-Asr, Verse 3), emphasizes this principle.The Principle of Mutual Support (Financial/Practical Assistance and Sympathy): The obligation to provide financial and practical assistance to those economically and socially harmed by the disease. The principles of brotherhood (Mu’akhah) and cooperation in Islam make this an essential tenet.The Principle of Dignity and Respect: Preserving the human dignity of patientsand those on the front lines of treatment, even under the harshest conditions of quarantine or illness. Respect for parents and elders in Islam is an example of this principle on a broader scale.The Principle of Non-Maleficence (Avoiding Harm): The ethical duty of all individuals to adhere to protocols to prevent the transmission of the disease to others, which is considered a form of harm to others. The jurisprudential maxim “La dharara wa la dhirar” (No harm shall be inflicted or reciprocated) forms the basis of this principle.The Principle of Tranquility and Serenity: Striving to maintain the psychological stability of society by avoiding emotional reactions and refraining from fueling unnecessary fears. Islam emphasizes peace of heart and reliance on divine decree.Discussion: These seven principles form an synergistic set that defines the ethical “dos and don’ts” in social interactions during crises. The main challenge in implementing these principles lies in the tension between individual duty (such as self-preservation) and social duty (helping others). Islamic ethics, by emphasizing the concept of reciprocal obligation, aligns these two. For instance, non-maleficence requires small daily sacrifices that collectively lead to the preservation of public health. Neglecting any of these principles can lead to the collapse of social trust and increased vulnerability for the most at-risk groups. The emphasis on Islamic teachings in this regard provides a stronger guarantee for adherence to these principles, as they are considered divine obligations rather than mere customary laws. https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106672.html Introduction: Ethics and moral life are fundamental pillars guiding humans toward a higher existence. Moral conduct shapes interpersonal relationships and determines inner growth, mental well-being, and social cohesion. Societies recognizing morality as a vital principle are more resilient against corruption, violence, and distrust (Ferdowsi & Arzani, 2018). Islamic teachings also emphasize moral excellence; the Qur’an states: “And indeed, you are of a great moral character” (Surah Al-Qalam, verse 4, trans. Fooladvand, 1994). However, younger generations today show reduced adherence to traditional moral values. Technological changes, economic fluctuations, social media, and regional conflicts have collectively weakened core values such as honesty, loyalty, and respect (Moghaddam, 2015). Some consider ethics merely a private or spiritual matter, overlooking its direct social and material impact. Recent studies highlight the ongoing importance of ethics in modern contexts. Zhou et al. (2023) stressed that morality is essential across all aspects of life, including education and business. Okipu (2022) demonstrated the critical role of ethics in teaching, showing that unethical behavior adversely affects both students and the education system. Karma Sherpa (2018) emphasized that professional ethics significantly influence students’ behavioral development. This research focuses on student-teachers at Farhangian University in Kurdistan Province during the 2023–2024 academic year. As future educators, their ethical perspectives are crucial for transmitting values to the next generation. The study aims to identify ethical concepts that have diminished over time, analyze the causes and consequences of moral decline, and provide practical solutions grounded in cultural and religious traditions to strengthen and revive moral values in contemporary society. The findings offer insights into the ethical status of the academic community and can inform effective cultural and educational policy-making. Findings: This study shows that in today's society, several moral concepts have become less important than in the past. Among the most important of these concepts are respect for elders, honesty, loyalty and keeping promises, responsibility, kinship, modesty, trustworthiness, contentment, helping others, empathy, justice, chastity of speech, and faith. The main reasons for this decline include the influence of the media and cyberspace, increased individualism, economic pressures and financial crises, disregard for moral values, cultural changes (especially the effects of globalization), increased corruption, diminished worship of God, social injustice, weakening of the role of the family, illiteracy and lack of awareness, materialism, decreased social trust, and the promotion of inappropriate role models. This decline in moral concepts has led to numerous negative results and consequences in society. These consequences include an increase in family problems and divorce rates, a decrease in mutual help and empathy, an increase in theft and fraud, the spread of lying, an increase in unhealthy competition, the emergence of antisocial behaviors, an increase in addiction, the creation of social insecurity, the spread of mental and psychological illnesses, the failure to pursue responsibilities, an increase in distrust and disrespect, an increase in suicide rates, an increase in the level of tension and fighting in society, and finally, the replacement of falsehood with truth. Discussion: This research aimed to investigate ethical values, the reasons for their decline, and strategies for their revival from the perspective of Farhangian University students in the academic year 2024-2025. Findings indicate a significant decrease in fundamental ethical values such as respect for elders, honesty, loyalty, responsibility, and earning lawful sustenance compared to the past. This decline is relative and context-dependent, accompanied by cultural and media transformations. Key reasons for this trend include the influence of media and cyberspace, increased individualism, economic pressures, Westernization, corruption, diminished religious beliefs, and the weakening of the family institution. The consequences manifest socially (theft, lying, mistrust), familially (increased divorce, reduced respect), and individually (suicide, irresponsibility). https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106659.html Introduction: Given the growing societal demand for ethical research on applied issues, and considering that conducting such research—particularly when carried out by academic institutions—entails significant material and human resources, it is essential to critically evaluate and analyze existing applied ethics research in Iran. Such evaluation should address both the content and the research process, aiming to identify shortcomings and propose solutions for optimizing their impact. The ultimate goal is to enhance the effectiveness of these studies in raising ethical awareness, strengthening ethical motivation, and resolving or mitigating ethical dilemmas among their audiences. Since a comprehensive assessment across all domains of applied ethics is not feasible, the present article adopts a case study approach, focusing on Information Technology Ethics (ITE), with particular emphasis on cyberspace and artificial intelligence. A critical analysis of research in this field requires identifying deficiencies, understanding their underlying causes, and proposing remedial or mitigating strategies. The author has previously examined the first two aspects in a separate article; the current work presents a paradigm for enhancing the quality of IT ethics research, structured around three phases: pre-research, research, and post-research. Findings: The findings of the present study indicate that addressing or mitigating the shortcomings and challenges associated with ethical research in our country necessitates the consideration of a set of strategic measures. These include: Establishing specialized centers for research in information technology ethics, Fostering systematic collaboration among existing research institutions in this field, Founding an academic discipline dedicated to information technology ethics, Training specialized researchers in this domain, Creating a comprehensive database and a communication network for IT ethics scholars, Enhancing international academic exchanges, Compiling authoritative reference resources for research, Conducting generative research based on the ethical teachings of Islam, Prioritizing interdisciplinary research initiatives, Incorporating foresight studies on the future of information technology ethics, Translating Iranian research into other languages, Launching specialized academic journals, Producing diverse and multiple outputs from research findings. Discussion: Characteristics of an Ideal Applied Ethics Study: The hallmarks of a robust applied ethics study encompass the following: possessing scientific depth and content rigor; utilizing ethical theories, and preferably, the ethical teachings of Islam; adhering to the discourse of ethical science; exhibiting analytical, critical, and comparative qualities; prioritizing the needs, issues, and ethical challenges of contemporary Iranian society (while maintaining a perspective on global issues, particularly concerning emerging subjects like information technology and artificial intelligence); maintaining an applied focus aimed at resolving or mitigating harms and deficiencies; laying the groundwork for further studies and research; critically analyzing the existing literature on the subject; and demonstrating innovation by avoiding repetitive topic selection. Necessary Steps for Improvement: To achieve an optimal state in line with these characteristics, three essential tasks must be undertaken: Identifying the shortcomings inherent in existing applied ethics research, Determining the factors and contexts that give rise to these shortcomings, Finally, proposing solutions to resolve or mitigate them. Case Study Selection and Focus: Given the impracticality of performing such a comprehensive analysis across all domains of applied ethics research, the author of this article has selected "Iranian Information Technology Ethics (ITE) research" as a case study. Furthermore, within the broad spectrum of technologies, the present written work focuses specifically on cyberspace and artificial intelligence. The rationale for selecting this domain is threefold: First, its emergent nature can serve as a model for researching other new ethical topics required by society. Second, it aligns with the author's specialized field of study and research over the past two decades. Third, there is a lack of similar work in this specific area. Scope and Objective of the Present Article: Among the three aforementioned necessary tasks, the author has previously examined the first two—namely, the deficiencies in Iranian IT ethics research and their contributing factors—in a separate article. The present article addresses the third task: presenting a paradigm of solutions and recommendations for remedying or reducing those deficiencies and enhancing the productivity of applied ethics research, with specific attention to IT ethics studies in Iran. Research Method: The research methodology is characterized as a content-based, library-analytical, and applied investigation https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106673.html Introduction: This research analyzes the foundations of ethical guidance methodology (rahnamā‑shenāsi) in the theology of Shaykh Tusi. It explores the intrinsic link between ethics and theology in Shi‘a thought, focusing on the role of divine leaders in guiding humanity toward felicity. Using a descriptive‑analytical and rational‑textual method, the study examines Tusi’s views on prophecy, imamate, and the characteristics of divine guides as ethical models. The core thesis posits that Tusi establishes a coherent ethical guidance system based on the necessity of the Infallibles, emphasizing Ismah, A‘lamiyyah (greatest knowledge), and Afḍaliyyah (superiority) as pillars of moral exemplarity. Findings: 1- Virtue Ethics and Exemplarism: The framework aligns with Virtue Ethics, prioritizing character cultivation (stating “Be like this”) over mere adherence to rules. Like Aristotle’s emphasis on virtuous individuals for discerning the mean, the Shi‘a tradition introduces the Prophet (PBUH) and Imams (AS) as supreme ethical exemplars. 2- Theological Basis: Prophecy and Imamate: Tusi mandates the appointment of prophets and Imams based on the Divine Principle of Lutf (grace). A) Prophecy: A Prophet (Nabi) receives direct divine knowledge. Their mission is inherently ethical: reason identifies general moral principles, while Sharī‘ah provides specific rulings. Prophetic teachings harmonize with human fiṭrah (natural disposition). B) Imamate: Tusi considers Imamate rationally necessary, grounding it in Lutf. The Imam is the perfect embodiment of divine commands, ensuring social good and preservation of the Shari’ah until Judgment Day. This role requires the Imam’s Ismah (infallibility) to guarantee correct interpretation and implementation of divine law. 3- Attributes of Divine Guides: Key Imamate attributes include knowledge of governance and immunity from error. The most crucial traits, following Ismah, are: A‘lamiyyah: Comprehensive knowledge of law and public interest. Afḍaliyyah: Moral and spiritual superiority over the community. Courage: Essential for leadership and jihad. 4- Moral Education and Motivation: Tusi’s ethics is virtue‑based, defining felicity as Qurb Ilāhī (proximity to God). Motivation centers on attaining divine satisfaction. Prophets and Imams, by embodying ethical perfection, provide the strongest incentive. Their example challenges worldly motives, asserting that true dignity belongs exclusively to God (Qur’an 2:165), making Īthār (altruism) the ultimate ethical act. Guidance (Hidāyah) is defined as Divine Lutf directing humanity toward obedience and reward, establishing the structure of ethical obligations. Discussion: Shaykh Tusi integrates theology (Kalām) and ethics, presenting prophets and Imams as moral exemplars whose guidance reinforces a virtue‑based ethical system dependent on humanity’s transcendent needs. https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106661.html Introduction: The mere existence of the soul as a potentiality has the ability to move towards higher understanding and unity with the active intellect. However, internal and external obstacles manifest through the driving forces of the soul, such as lust and anger, which prevent the soul from progressing on this path and make the activity of the cognitive faculty vulnerable. Some of these obstacles are existential, while others are non-existent. With the realization of states as existential moral virtues, knowledge is attained, and humans reach a higher understanding. The removal of these obstacles is the responsibility of these very states and moral virtues. From Sadra's viewpoint, the benefits of these states and moral virtues are not limited to their non-existent and negative aspects; he also acknowledges their existential and positive dimensions. In fact, the deepening of virtuous traits through consistent good actions plays a positive role in facilitating the acquisition of knowledge. Findings: The evolution and perfection of the soul are tied to the acquisition of knowledge. Therefore, the obstacles to gaining knowledge are also the obstacles to human perfection. Sadra identifies barriers to the soul's progressive movement towards the active intellect and connection to scientific grace, explaining that certain causes and reasons hinder the manifestation of truths upon the soul. Immoral actions and ethics serve as internal existential factors that lead to the loss of the soul's perfection or act as barriers to its remaining veiled. With every action performed by the soul, an effect occurs within it. If the action is tainted by lust or anger, it becomes a barrier to the possible perfection of the soul; conversely, if it is rational, it will contribute positively to the soul's deserving perfection. Thus, the soul's submission to lusts and desires deprives humans of understanding truths and knowledge, preventing them from reaching scientific grace. In this regard, sins and moral vices, which stem from the diseases of the heart, are considered among the most fundamental and significant obstacles to the soul's perfection and the attainment of divine knowledge and philosophical truths. Discussion: Human souls have the potential to attain perfection through knowledge and action, and the connection to the realm of abstraction is possible both inherently and potentially for the human soul. If there are no obstacles, the soul continues on its path to perfection. In this context, internal obstacles manifest through the driving forces of the soul in the form of lust and anger, which hinder its movement along this path and make the cognitive faculty vulnerable. The love of wealth and status has been identified as the most significant factors leading to desires. Moral vices can sometimes entirely obstruct the emergence of knowledge or hinder its realization, while at other times, they prevent the advancement of knowledge and lead to a potential distancing from perfection. https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106695.html Introduction: The “Semantic Method” is one of the best methods for studying the semantic structure of the Qur’anic words, and it is of a great significance in semantic researches. In this article, using this method, we have undertaken a lexical semantic analysis of the two Qur’anic terms “Tâqwā” and “Iḥsān”, and have enumerated their semantic organs and semantic qualities on the basis of the Qur’anic verses, since the concepts denoted by these two terms have a special and distinguished position in Qur’anic ethics. It should be noted that the expressions “Semantic Organ” and “Semantic Quality” are proposed and explicated here for the first time within the framework of the “Lexical Semantic Analysis” method. We have explained that semantic organs are the constituents and formative components of meaning which, in a dynamic and living relationship, lead to the formation and emergence of meaning; whereas semantic qualities refer to the characteristics that are present in the meaning of a word and in its semantic organs, such as continuity and hierarchical gradation. These two components play a crucial role in the extraction of the meanings of Qur’anic vocabulary and can render semantic analysis more precise. For this purpose, all the Qur’anic verses containing the roots (w-q-y) and (ḥ-s-n) were examined, and the verses that were useful for extracting the semantic organs and semantic qualities of the two Qur’anic terms “Tâqwā” and “Iḥsān” were identified. Findings: Based on the Qur’anic verses, we have concluded that “Islām”, “Imān”, and “ʿAmal-e Ṣāliḥ (Righteous Action)” are the semantic organs of “Tâqwā”, while “protectiveness and safeguarding”, “hierarchical gradation”, and “continuity” constitute its semantic qualities. Likewise, “Imān”, “Tâqwā”, and “ʿAmal-e Ṣāliḥ” are the semantic organs of “Iḥsān”, and “bestowal (favor)”, “quality-seeking”, and “advancement and compensatory orientation” are its semantic qualities. Discussion: On the basis of the Qur’anic verses cited in the text of article, Islām, when accompanied by righteous action, gives rise to Imān. Imān, when coupled with Tâslīm, leads to Tâqwā. Likewise, Imān accompanied by righteous action results in Tâqwā. Moreover, the conjunction of Tâqwā and righteous action leads to Iḥsān, and the combination of Imān and Tâqwā gives rise to Iḥsān. These judgments indicate a hierarchical relationship between these concepts, in which each plays a fundamental role in the generation of a new meaning. Accordingly, in examining the relationship between the concepts of these terms, we identified two types of relations: the “relation of production” and the “relation of increase.” This means that Islām and Imān, as the two principal semantic organs of Tâqwā, lead to the production of the concept of Tâqwā, while righteous action, as a facilitator of meaning, plays a role in the emergence of this new concept. Here, it must be added that intensity in Imān and Tâslīm leads to an increase in these concepts and in their product, namely, Tâqwā. Similarly, Imān and Tâqwā, as the semantic organs of Iḥsān, lead to the emergence of this concept and to the intensification of its degree. Here again, the concept of righteous action functions as a facilitating factor. Therefore, what causes Iḥsān to emerge from the combination of Imān and Tâqwā is righteous action; and, fundamentally, Iḥsān is of the nature of high-quality righteous action. This means that Tâqwā, when adorned with high-quality righteous action, guides the human being toward Iḥsān. Finally, in examining the effects of the combination of Tâqwā and Iḥsān, we have concluded that the shared effects of their combination are divine companionship (mâʿiyyât -e- ilāhī), great reward, divine forgiveness and mercy, and cancelling out the sins. https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106696.html Introduction: Among Islamic moral thinkers—similar to Kantian ethical thought—the role of practical reason is highly prominent and is regarded as the sole gateway to true wisdom. This paper examines the extensive role of practical reason from the perspectives of Immanuel Kant—one of the most influential figures in the rationalist tradition of contemporary Western philosophy—and Mulla Sadra, the founder of Transcendent Philosophy (al-ḥikma al-mutaʿāliyah). Findings: From Kant’s perspective, only the individual who adheres to the dictates of practical reason is genuinely free and possesses a form of life that transcends mere animal existence. Moral laws are universal, as they are grounded in the “transcendental self” and thus constitute a single, common reality for all human beings. Kant also grounds all theological proofs in practical reason and maintains that transcendence beyond the realm of sensible experience is possible only within the domain of practical reason. questions: l First, does practical reason contain a determinate list of moral rules? l If the grounds of moral obligation are supplied by practical reason, are the justification, truth, and validity of moral decisions genuinely guaranteed? For example, patience is considered good because it is an effective means for achieving goals, but is it also morally true and justified? l Is mere harmony and conformity with the structure of practical reason, by itself, sufficient to count as a moral reason or argument? l Does conformity with the structure of practical reason adequately secure the universality and exceptionlessness of moral obligations, as Kant intends? l Do the diverse manifestations of practical reason across different cultures undermine the stability of moral judgments? In contrast to Kant, Mulla Sadra holds that ultimate transcendence beyond sensible experience and the attainment of true happiness depend on the theoretical intellect’s access to the knowledge of higher metaphysical realities. However, as long as the soul remains entangled in lower-level perceptions and needs, the theoretical intellect cannot ascend to the realm of higher intelligibles. Practical reason, through voluntary development and the free governance of the soul’s faculties, removes these impediments and enables the theoretical intellect to pursue truth. With the flourishing of practical reason, human beings attain moral good, and this achievement represents a significant manifestation of voluntary substantial perfection. In Mulla Sadra’s philosophy, practical reason possesses a cognitive dimension and is strengthened through disciplined engagement in discerning real moral goods and evils. points: l The cognitive dimension of practical reason guarantees moral justification, truth, and validity. l Harmony with the cognitive aspect of practical reason ensures the universality and exceptionlessness of moral rules. l The cognitive dimension of practical reason is capable of generating moral reasons and arguments. l Moreover, the cognitive and perceptual orientation of practical reason manifests a unified character across different cultures. Discussion: One of the most significant points of divergence between the two views concerns the function of practical reason. In Kant’s dual-aspect framework, practical reason belongs to the inner, noumenal, or supra-phenomenal realm rather than the external, phenomenal realm. While causal necessity governs the phenomenal world, the noumenal realm is governed by the rules of pure reason. By contrast, in Mulla Sadra’s unitive metaphysical framework, practical reason, in one respect, is merely the soul’s motivational faculty responsible for regulating its powers, and in another respect, it is a cognitive faculty tasked with discerning morally beautiful actions from morally reprehensible ones. https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106671.html Introduction: The environment and natural resources are essential assets and foundational pillars of sustainable development, holding a significant position in contemporary legal systems. However, the intensification of crises such as climate change, species extinction, and widespread pollution indicates that existing laws have largely failed to curb this degradation. The root of this inefficacy can be traced to the dominance of an anthropocentric mindset within legislative frameworks, a mindset that defines nature merely as an instrument for fulfilling human needs and fails to recognize its intrinsic value. In this context, two intellectual systems, bioethics and religious teachings, can offer deeper, value-based theoretical foundations for critiquing and reforming existing laws and developing more comprehensive legislation. The main objective of this article is to examine the level of alignment and the feasibility of integrating these three domains (law, bioethics, and religious teachings) to establish a unified analytical framework. Findings: The examination of these three domains reveals distinct and often contrasting findings: 1- The Prevailing Legal System (International and National): Analysis of documents such as the Stockholm Declaration (1972) and domestic laws indicates that the dominant discourse is anthropocentric. In this discourse, the environment is either viewed as the "common heritage of humanity" or as the basis for realizing the "human right to a healthy environment." A consequence of this perspective is that criminalizing environmental destruction is contingent upon proving harm to human health or interests. This approach disregards the independent legal personality and intrinsic value of nature. 2- Bioethical Principles: In branches of bioethics such as ecocentric ethics, intrinsic value is ascribed to all components of nature. Concepts like intergenerational justice and ecosystem integrity are central to this field. Intergenerational justice emphasizes that the present generation bears an ethical responsibility to ensure that future generations can benefit from natural resources and a healthy environment. Ecosystem integrity necessitates a holistic perspective in which interconnected natural components are protected as a unified "whole," rather than focusing solely on individual species or specific resources. 3- Religious Teachings of Islam: The Islamic perspective on nature is rooted in a monotheistic worldview. In this view, nature constitutes a collection of divine signs, manifesting God's power, wisdom, and mercy. Consequently, it possesses dignity and intrinsic value. Humanity is the trustee of these divine blessings on Earth. This status imposes a profound ethical and religious responsibility upon humans: the duty to protect, nurture, and utilize resources sustainably. Concepts such as "reviving the earth," "prohibition of corruption and waste," and "accountability for divine blessings and future generations" within Islamic texts provide a robust foundation for a relationship with nature based on respect and responsibility. Environmental protection within this intellectual framework is a religious duty and an expression of devotion. Discussion: The comparison and contrast of these three discourses reveal a profound theoretical gap. Existing laws, with their focus on short-term, tangible human interests, at best attempt to manage damages rather than prevent their occurrence. These laws lack the deep ethical foundation necessary to enforce a trans-species commitment and respect for the integrity of the ecosystem. Conversely, both bioethical and Islamic systems, by grounding themselves in the intrinsic value of nature and defining human responsibility towards the entirety of creation, enable the formulation of preventive, holistic, and justice-oriented laws. To bridge this gap and connect theory with practice, this article proposes an integrated framework derived from the systematic synthesis of key components from the three domains. These principles can serve as criteria for evaluating existing laws and as a roadmap for future legislation: The principle of intrinsic value and trusteeship (recognizing nature's inherent dignity); The principle of human responsibility and duty-Orientation (emphasizing active human stewardship in protection, restoration, and balance); The principle of intergenerational and intra-ecosystemic justice (guaranteeing the rights of future generations and all ecosystem components); The principle of holistic integrity and health (adopting a systemic, unified perspective on health); The principle of the right to a healthy environment (as a fundamental legal standard). It should be noted that transitioning from the current purely anthropocentric legal system to one that incorporates these five principles requires a paradigm shift in the philosophical foundations of legislation, prioritizing long-term ecological interests over short-term economic gains, and culturally promoting a worldview of respect toward nature. https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106653.html Introduction: The role and meaning of literacy in the modern world is a very complex and even amazing category because not only was it a factor in the gradual realization of the Renaissance in the past, but now, in the digital age, it has become the basis or necessity of everything, in such a way that it is almost impossible to experience a normal life without it. In parallel with the increasing changes in the world, the definition and scope of literacy is also undergoing constant change to the point where the category of literacies has practically replaced the classical concept of literacy and has added to the complexity of the issue. Computer literacy, emotional literacy, electronic literacy, Internet literacy, and moral literacy are among the most important emerging branches that have narrowed the space for the traditional understanding of the concept of literacy. The main question and issue in this article is about what moral literacy is and its role in the current world, that is, the world of two spaces. In fact, the following article wants to analyze the possibility of realizing something called moral literacy from the perspective of philosophy/philosophy of ethics. In other words, the debate is about whether moral literacy is possible and feasible, and if so, is it also desirable and desirable? Based on the answer to this question, another question is: What are the conceptual foundations of the formation of moral literacy and how does it relate to popular theories from a meta-ethical perspective? In light of these questions, it is easier to see whether moral literacy is more of a skill or information, and whether these two are more global or local. Findings: Two main approaches can be taken regarding the content that can be transferred in the form of moral literacy: the normative approach and the skill approach. In the normative approach to the content and meaning of moral literacy, the transfer and education of two general categories of norms are discussed: global norms and local norms. But what is meant by global and local norms and how can we draw a boundary between them? There are relatively diverse ways to define and distinguish between the two. For example, through a descriptive study, we can say that universal norms are those that are common and accepted in all or most cultures or moral traditions of the world, such as fairness and truthfulness, and local norms are those that are only seen in some cultures or moral traditions, such as the religious veil common among Muslims or religious Jews. Of course, this is not the only way to distinguish between universal and local moral norms. Instead of a purely descriptive study, meta-ethical or philosophical methods can be used. For example, norms that can be proven or explained regardless of a specific religious or cultural perspective can be called universal or general moral norms, and norms that can only be understood or justified within a specific religious or cultural tradition or system can be called local or specific norms. Discussion: It is clear that a detailed and in-depth study in this field is not the subject of this article, nor can its extensive dimensions be well handled here. Here I am only saying that when we are able to include moral norms in both global and local or general and specific formats in every reasonable and possible way, then we have removed a significant part of the obstacles to the development and teaching of moral literacy. You may ask why and how? The answer is that when we are able to level morality, then in determining the content of moral literacy we will be able to either be content with teaching global or general norms or teach the accepted and acceptable norms according to the situation (religious, cultural, geographical, etc.) of the learners. In the skills approach to the content and content of moral literacy, unlike the previous approach, the challenge of whether the teachings are global or local, general or specific is no longer a big issue. Why? Because the discussion is fundamentally about moral living skills rather than principles or norms or moral qualities. In this approach to the content of moral literacy, the methods and skills of being good are in focus, not what is good and what is bad! The nature of methods and skills is that they are largely cross-cultural and generally universal. Ethical skills and methods are mostly formal, organic, and instrumental, and lack evaluative aspects. https://jiethics.sbu.ac.ir/article_106733.html According to Fārābī, who is a virtue ethicist philosopher, eudaimonia which is the supreme good that human beings seek, is equal to knowing God and becoming similar to Him. Knowing God is the end of theoretical philosophy, and the assimilation to God is the end of practical philosophy. Knowing God is the goal of theoretical sciences, and the similarity to God and the complete detachment of man are the goals of practical sciences; therefore, theoretical and practical wisdom play a role in bringing man to happiness. Therefore, true philosophy leads man to true happiness, and a true philosopher is one who has acquired all theoretical, intellectual, and moral virtues and adorns himself with these virtues in practice. Following the philosophers of ancient Greece, Fārābī attaches great importance to ethics before and with philosophy in order to achieve a true philosopher and philosophy, not a false philosopher and philosophy that never leads man to true happiness. Both pre-philosophical ethics and philosophical ethics are philosophical and based on evidence.