The History of Ascetic Biography in Kufa and Qom: A Reassessment of Text-Centered Shiʿi Currents; 2nd to 4th Centuries AH

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Department of Islamic history and civilization, FacultyTheology and Religious Studies, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran (Corresponding Author).

2 PhD student Islamic Studies major Islamic Ethics orientation, Faculty of Islamic Sciences, University of Quran and Hadith, Tehran, Iran.

Abstract

Introduction: The history of ethical writing in Shiʿism, despite the loss of many early works, remains accessible through bibliographical sources such as al-Najāshī’s Fihrist and al-Ṭūsī’s Fihrist. These catalogues reveal intellectual currents and writing traditions in the early Islamic centuries. While much scholarly attention has been devoted to theology and ḥadīth in the major Shiʿi centers of Kufa and Qom, the ethical dimension of these schools has received comparatively little attention. This study addresses this gap by focusing on zuhd-writing (ascetic literature) as a representative case of early Shiʿi ethical thought. It examines the development of zuhd-writing between the 2nd and 4th centuries AH in
the Kufan and Qom schools. The centrality of zuhd in early Shiʿi ethics is evident, as it functioned not merely as an individual practice but as a socio-intellectual current countering worldliness, with strong roots in the teachings of the Imams. Zuhd also provides a practical lens for assessing the intellectual orientations of Shiʿi scholars in law, exegesis, and ḥadīth, and offers a comparative framework for distinguishing Shiʿi ethics from Sufi currents. The study hypothesizes that jurists and exegetes in Kufa (2nd century AH), jurists in Qom (3rd century AH), and ḥadīth scholars in the 4th century AH played decisive roles in shaping Shiʿi ascetic literature. Beyond illuminating scholarly orientations, these texts provide valuable insights into the social values and lifestyles of early Shiʿi communities and contribute to reviving the Shiʿi ethical heritage. Methodologically, the study employs a historical-analytical approach, drawing primarily on biographical and bibliographical sources—particularly al-Najāshī’s Fihrist. Given that nearly all ascetic works of this period have been lost, the analysis relies on preserved titles, authorial attributions, and contextual evidence to reconstruct the intellectual profile of the authors.
Findings: The research shows that Shiʿi ascetic literature evolved across three main stages. In Kufa during the 2nd century AH, it was closely linked to the writings of exegetes and jurists. In the 3rd century, the tradition continued in Qom through the works of jurists, with al-Ḥusayn b. Saʿīd al-Ahwāzī’s Kitāb al-Zuhd as a prominent surviving example.
By the 4th century, ascetic writing in Qom underwent a significant shift from the mere compilation of moral traditions to practical sīra-writing, presenting models of asceticism rooted in the lives of the Prophet (ṣ) and the Imams (ʿa), with the works of al-Shaykh al-Ṣadūq serving as prime examples. This transformation was shaped by broader historical factors, including the end of the Imams’ direct presence, the spread of Sufism, and parallel developments in Sunnī ascetic traditions.
Discussion: The findings demonstrate that ascetic literature in the 2nd–4th centuries AH was not marginal but integral to the scholarly and ethical heritage of Imāmī Shiʿism. Comparative analysis of the Kufan and Qom schools shows that, despite their differing intellectual orientations, both recognized zuhd as a central axis of ethical writing. This underscores the role of asceticism in structuring the semantic network of Shiʿi ethics, revealing that early Shiʿi moral thought was embedded in broader social contexts and reactions to worldliness. The transition from theoretical and narrative zuhd in Kufa and Qom to practical sīra-writing in the 4th century reflects a shift toward providing concrete ethical models for the community, likely influenced by the closure of the Imams’ era and the growth of Sufi and Sunnī trends. The originality of this study lies in situating Shiʿi ascetic writing within the framework of intellectual currents and scholarly schools, whereas previous studies have treated zuhd largely in general Islamic or theological contexts. Thus, this research makes a significant contribution to filling the gap in the historiography of Shiʿi ethics and opens pathways for further studies on the later development of ascetic and ethical traditions.

Keywords

References

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Interdisciplinary Studies in Ethics
Volume 1, Issue 1 - Serial Number 1
April 2025
Pages 169-192

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History

  • Receive Date: 28 May 2025
  • Revise Date: 26 July 2025
  • Accept Date: 28 September 2025
  • First Publish Date: 30 September 2025
  • Publish Date: 22 November 2025

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